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Language Tools– |
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Etruscan Phrases
by Mel Copeland
(from a work published in 1981)
| Etruscan Murals |
Contents
Book I
Introduction
What I am trying to do
with this website
Myths, mirrors and Etruscan
declension patterns
Etruscan gods and goddesses,
Etruscan_Phrases_b.html
Battle of the hero-god with the
dragon: victory of light over darkenss,
Etruscan_Phrases_b.html
Unique Etruscan storylines,
Etruscan_Phrases_b.html
The Etruscan language is
Indo-European, as confirmed herein,
Etruscan_Phrases_b.html
Studying the Etruscans and their
Indo-European relations through Table 1,
Etruscan_Phrases_b.html
The Etruscans and the Trojan War,
Etruscan_Phrases_c.html
Indo-European homelands and
migrations, Etruscan_Phrases_c.html
The testimony of the Iliad and its
relationship to the Indo-European saga,
Etruscan_Phrases_c.html
Breaking down the Etruscan language
through the scientific method,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
Background on the methodology,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
Book II
A short history,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
Mapping the spread of the tumuli,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
The Mycenean connection,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
On reading the scripts,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
What the translations are revealing,
Etruscan_Phrases_d.html
The search for the Indo-European
mother tongue, Etruscan_Phrases_e.html
Book III
Theories on the difussion of
culture, Etruscan_Phrases_e.html
Comparative Linguistics and the
movement of the Indo-Europeans,
Etruscan_Phrases_e.html
Phylogenetic Chronology,
Etruscan_Phrases_e.html
Trade routes,
Etruscan_Phrases_f.html
Claims as to who was first among the
Indo-Europeans, Etruscan_Phrases_f.html
Etruscan - its place in the
Indo-European sequence, Etruscan_Phrases_f.html
Links, Etruscan_Phrases_f.html
Appendixes
Etruscan_Murals.html
Etruscan_Grammar.html
&
Etruscan_GlossaryA.xls
Banquet of the Gods: Banquet.html
Texts
&Translations
Related
Books/Reports
Hittite Treaties.html |
Phrygian.html |
Lydian.html
Etruscan Declension patterns as thety
relate to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit (PDF) Acadamia.edu
Accentuations
of the Etruscan language that are comparable to
Indo-European patterns (PDF) Acadamia.edu
Unique
perspectives in Etruscan mythology (PDF) Acadamia.edu
Introduction
When one begins an investigation one
does not know where it will lead. Of key importance to
any investigation is the way the data are gathered and
recorded; then the process by which the information is
analyzed. With diligence the study may open new vistas
and they too are important to the work. Bear with me,
now, as we explore the fascinating, mysterious world
of the Etruscans, their neighbors, ancestors, hopes,
dreams and fears. I say, fears, since their writing
includes fearsome depictions, as can be seen for
instance, in the Tomb of Orcus (who would want to be
buried with such depictions around them?), which you
may wish to view by clicking on the Etruscan_murals
link. To understand the Etruscans we have to
step into their world about ~1,200 B.C. Although that
date and the subsequent centuries are somewhat of a
"Dark Age" to us, we can see in the light from the
Etruscans and other Indo-European peoples, such as the
Aryans of India who created the Rig Veda, and
the Danaäns of the Illiad, an attempt to
reconcile their lives, their hopes and dreams, to that
which is greater than they are: the gods. What these
ancient peoples, in those ancient times, were
reconciling was then even ancient history to them.
Also described in this work are the Celts, who have
passed down a similar, though abbreviated,
Indo-European tradition that continues with us till
this day. They passed down to us the Táin Bó
Cuailnge, also called The Tain. It is
about a great battle between the two major chieftans
of Ireland, concerning a cattle-raid by Queen Medb and
King Ailill, of Connacht, with their allies, against
the king of Ulster. The hero of the story is
Cúchulainn, his name meaning "the hound of Chulainn."
Though a giant of a man, still in his youth, he is
obliged to watch the cattle that are about to be
raided, because he killed the hound that normally
watched the cattle. Obviously he is at the center of
the battle that takes place and certain warriors that
are killed in the battle leave their names to the
places of Ireland where they were killed. It follows
the same pattern of story-telling as the Iliad
and the Hindu version of the "great battle" called the
Mahabharata. An Anglo-Saxon, Danish version of
the "great battle" is another wonderful story,
Beowulf, that involves the hero, Beowulf,
who destroys the monster Grendel, that lives
underground, and feeds upon the warriors of a Danish
palace. More ancient in the Indo-European tradition,
perhaps, is the Rig Veda, which tells us of
the god Indra (like the Greek god Zeus and Etruscan
god Tinia) who destroys a dragon. In Greek mythology
Zeus destroys the monster, whose legs were serpents,
Typhöeus or Typhon. In Celtic mythology the name of
this god who destroyed monsters or dragons is probably
Cernunnos, who will be discussed more in this work.
Typhöeus is a character, like many other Greek gods,
remembered in Etruscan images. Knowing this we should
be able to find in Tinia's ephitet a refrence to
Typhöeus, or the Etruscan name of that character, if
much different.
A curious turn in our exploration of the Etruscan
language has led to the Phrygian language and its very
similar grammatical patterns that relate to the
Etruscan language. Herodotus and other ancients,
particularly Strabo, provided pointers suggesting that
the Etruscans, originating in Lydia, and the Phrygians
shared a common heritage and land. Strabo and others
further point out that the Phrygians are identical to
the Mysians and Thracians. He also compares the
Thracians to the Celts. The ancient texts that point
to the Etruscan-Phrygian-Celtic connection are at the
"Etruscan Phrases" Phrygiank.html. Strabo describes
these people as being very ancient and attributes many
inventions, such as wagons, to them. He, as well as
other ancient writers, says that the Phrygians are
believed to have come from Thrace. He further points
out that the Getae and Thracians share the same
tongue. Strabo then points out that the island of
Lemnos was first settled by Thracians. Lemnos has
strong connections to the Phrygians and interestingly
the Lemnos
Stelae, Script S, written in Etruscan
characters, shows a punctuation (3-dot colon) like the
Phrygian script. While the Lemnos Script has been
identified as an Etruscan writing, it appears that it
is Phrygian, though both the Etruscans and Phrygians
appear to share the same language.
In Book X, Chapter 3.12, Strabo gives an interesting
description of the Phrygian religion: "But
as for the Berecyntes, a tribe of Phrygians, and the
Phrygians in general, and those of the Trojans who
live round Ida, they too hold Rhea in honour and
worship her with orgies, calling her Mother of the
gods and Agdistis and Phrygia the Great Goddess, and
also, from the places where she is worshipped, Idaea
and Dindymene and Sipylene and Pessinuntis and Cybele
and Cybebe. The Greeks use the same name 'Curetes' for
the ministers of the goddess.." If the Etruscans
shared the same religion worshipped among the Trojans,
then we ought to expect to find Cybele's worship in
their texts. The Etruscan mirrors and murals, however,
project Uni as the mother-goddess (L. Juno; Gr. Hera)
and on the Divine_Mirror.html we see the
consort of Tinia (L. Jupiter; Gr. Zeus) as RALNA, who,
in the Divine-Mirror, is the mother of Helen of Troy.
In another mirror, Volterra_Mirror,
we see Uni suckling Heracles, accompanied by a text
held up by Tinia. Of interest in this regard is a
statement by Strabo, Book V, Chapter 4, that
identifies the Etruscan "Hera" as "Cupra." He is
discussing the Italian coast towards Naples, referring
to the Etruscan Temple of Cupra, and then reviews a
place considered to be one of the entrances to Hades
which is called the Archerusian Lake, near Cumae. A
similar place is discussed in Phrygia, possibly as
Hieropolis. The discussion leads back to Lemnos (where
Hephaestos [Latin, Vulcan] was believed to have been
born) and possible connections to the Phrygian
archeological site called Midas City which may be the
Midiaeium described by Strabo. Strabo lists Midiaeium
geographically with nearby cities such as Afyon and
Gediz. In sum, the Etruscans and Phrygians appear to
be connected in many ways, in historic background,
mythology and language.
Complicating the issue is the Aeneid by Virgil which
identifies the ancestors of the Romans with Trojan
refugees who speak the same language as the Latin
tribe of Latinus who occupied Rome, where the Trojans
led by Aeneas settled. This story thus merges with
historical accounts, where apparent grammatical
affinities among the Etruscans, Phrygians and Trojans
point to a pan-Latin language group that moved through
Thessaly into Anatolia and from there to Italy. The
presence of the Latin and "Italic" tribes preceeding
the "Trojans" suggests that the migration celebrated
by Virgil was not the first migration of Latin
speaking people to Italy. Curiously, ranked with other
"Italic" languages that defy translation is "Old
Latin," as preserved in the texts of the Fibula
Praenestina, Duenos Vase, Ficorroni cista, Carmen
Arvale and Carmen Saliare. (For links to these texts
see en.allexperts.com/q/Latin-2145/)
The historian of the Punic Wars, Polybius (wrote
between 246-167 B.C.), reported that the first treaty
between Rome and Carthage — written in Old
Latin — was difficult to translate. Other
treaties were difficult to translate, as reported by
Dionysus of Halicarnassus IV:26 and IV:28; Plinius,
"Naturalis Historia," XXXIV:14) and the treaty between
Rome and Ardea (Cicero, "Pro Balbo," 23.53).
Polybius, "The Rise of the Roman Empire," Book III.22): "...I give below as accurate a translation as I can of this treaty, but the modern language has developed so many differences from the ancient Roman tongue that the best scholars among the Romans themselves have great difficulty in interpreting certain points, even after much study."
The "Duenos Vase" appears to have
similar words to those used in Etruscan texts. We
recognize TENOI (Etr. TENV, (Q893), INE (BT-21?), with
INAS, INNI, INV; MAROS may be L. mare-is (3rd
declension). Of interest is that Etruscan MAREM
(Z1139) agrees with Latin 3rd declension, mare-is,
sea, whereas the Old Latin MAROS (L. marus?) does not
fit in the scheme of the 3rd declension. TODAS appears
to be L. tutus-a-um, Etr. TVTA, TVTAS (N11, N41),
TVTE, TVTHI. OPETOI appears to be L. oppidum-i, fort,
Etr. VPETV (R49). Following this word is TESIA which
appears to be a name because of its "ia" suffix. There
is an Etruscan word TESI (AU46), L. texo-texere? "to
weave, compose" IPAE is another interesting word
similar to Etruscan IPA (Z1153, Z1183, Z1227, BT-14,
L-24) and IPEI (Z1169). IOVER may be Etr. IVPER
(N230, N244, L. iubeo, iubere, to judge, order). AT
appears to be L. ad, towards, to (Etr. AU54, XW-5).
DEIVOS appears to be god, goddess L. deus, divus, dea,
diva, etc., Etr. TEI, TEIA, TEIM/TEIS, TEIFA (PL30).
Note that PL30 is an area of the Piacenz liver. QOIM
L. coeo-ire, to unite, assemble (Etr. CV, (Q488, R143,
R156, R607, R661) and KV (N206, N689, N725, Q406,
Q887, R80, R607, G30). ED appears to be Latin, et,
and, Etr. ET (N216, Q701 etc.) or it may be part of a
verb, EDMIT (L. edomet, he/she tames, subdues),
leaving AT (L. ad, towards, to) NEI TEDVN . NEI may be
L. ne, nae, truly or novus, new (as in Gr. NEAPOLIS).
TEDVN may be Latin tectum-i, roof, covering, Etr. TET
(L-13), TETV (Q202, R294). DOCOS would appear to be a
noun, docus, L. doctus-a-um, taught, learned. MISOIR
appears to be L. first person future, missus ero, "I
will send." This leaves COSI ED. If ED is L. et, as an
adverb, also, even, then COSI should be a verb. In
Etruscan we have CVSV (TC127, TC241, TC271, TC279,
TC307, AM-3) and CVSVR, TC56, TC161, TC179, CVSVS,
TC283. These could be L. causor-ari, to cause, give as
a reason. We have seen in Etruscan the "i" suffix
referring to the first person past, thus leaving the
last phrase reading "he/she subdues towards the
new/true head Docos I will send / I caused also." A
discussion on Old Latin is at wikpedia.org. An Etruscan text
that appears to be transitional to Old Latin is Script
ON.
Some of these early tribes, unlike their
heroic Trojan War era cousins — of Etruscans,
Phrygians, Trojans, Lydians, etc. —shared a living
standard like the celts, typified by the tribes called
the Roxolani. Says Strabo, "the Nomads, their tents, made of felt, are
fastened on the wagons in which they spend their
lives; and round about the tents are the herds which
afford the milk, cheese, and meat on which they live;
and they follow the grazing herds, from time to time
moving to other places that have grass, living only in
the marsh-meadows about Lake Maeotis." Strabo then
lists the Iapodes who lived near Illyria (modern
Croatia, Albania): "They are indeed a war-mad people,
but they have been utterly worn out by Augustus. Their
cities are Metulum, Arupini, Monetium, and Vendo.
Their lands are poor, the people living for the most
part on spelt and millet. Their armour is Celtic, and
they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and
the Thracians." The description of these Celtic
relatives is very similar to the record of Julius
Caesar's "Galic Wars" and others, such as Gerald of
Wales' description of the Welsh people in his 1188
A.D. books, "The Journey through Wales" and "The
Description of Wales." The populations of Celtic-Latin
peoples are believed to have shared a common language
and certainly dominated Western Europe from the time
of the Trojan War.
While there is no doubt that the Etruscan language, as shown on this site, is Indo-European and closely related to Latin, the work is not complete until other relationships are examined. We need to better understand what the Etruscan scripts say, and to do that, though we can read them, we need to be able to understand what we are reading. This is where an understanding of other like mythologies and languages is important and introduced in this work. For instance, in the "Tomb of the Lioness," in Tarquinia, a mural (See Etruscan_Murals) shows dancers and musicians on either side of an enormous vase or cauldron, and above them a lioness and a leopardess. What mythology is being represented here? Can the dance be similar to the Celtic ritual on the Gundestrop Cauldron? As will be seen in this work, the images from the Etruscan tombs are not just pretty images, though many have deteriorated; they tell a story. Our purpose ought to be to understand that story, to hopefully find at least a piece of the story in the extanct Etruscan scripts. We need to step beyond the efforts of the "historians" of the past.
Because so many of the Etruscan murals
recall Greek mythology — many contain names that coincide with greek
gods and godesses — we can presume that they adopted Greek
themes to themselves, like the Latins. The Greek Zeus
is the Latin Jupiter, for instance, and he is called
Tinia by the Etruscans. We also know from the Aeneid
of Vergil (born in Cisalpine Gaul, 70 B.C.) that
the Lydian refugees with Aeneas were able to enlist
the Etruscans (Tyrrhenians) to aid them in their war
against the indigenous Latins at Rome. Mentioned in
that tale is also the fact that nearby was a Greek
colony. The Greeks did influence Etruscan works of
art, justifying the title of the "Hellenic" period in
Etruscan "history." I put the word, history, in quotes
for a reason: What is known about the Etruscans is
from archeological data and bits and pieces of
testimonials from the Greek and Latin historians. Here
we shall attempt to put more legitimacy to the idea of
an Etruscan history, one that at least is composed of
words and images, as we can see from the murals and
mirrors, from their own hands — not others. Like the
Greek mythology, Etruscan mythology focuses on
patronymic relationships important to them. These
characters are particularly associated with actors
involved in the Trojan War and a few, like Alcestis
and Admetus, provide moral lessons and conundrums. A
modern representation of their history, from their
point of view, is carried in a mirror about King
Tarquin, whose powerful wife, Tanaquil, compelled him
to move from Tarquinia to Rome where he became king.
The mirror shows an augur warning Tarquin to beware.
Many of the Etruscan inscriptions are on murals or
frescos painted in Etruscan tombs. The paintings are
extraordinary art forms in themselves, but now they
are also sources of a new history about the Etruscans
from the Etruscan point of view. Note that the mural
below, on a sarcophagus, has writing upon it and was
thus intended by its creator to be more than just a
painting or work of art.
 |
|
Script AM, "Rape of Hecuba":
"Battle of the Greeks and Amazons" from a
sarcophagus from Tarquinia, now in the
Archeological Museum in Florence. There are
some characters that are hard to read. See
more details in Short_Scripts.html. The
script reads: HVC CRAI: RVI: ASV ATI: TIFI
CNEI: LAR RIAL Translation [ Hither is (L.
huc) Crai the king (L. rex, regis; It. re, Fr.
roi). Aso (Asius, a Trojan ally) of the Ati
(sons of Atis). He carried away (L deveho
-veheree -vexi -vectum) Cnei (Hecate or
Hecuba; Cyneus): of the god (L. lar) royal (L.
regalis)]. Note: Asius was the younger brother
of Hecuba and son of Dymas, king of the
Phryigian tribe who lived on the Sangarius
River (their father was the river god,
Sangarius). Asius led that nation's forces in
the Trojan War. Crai carries a genetive suffix
and may have a relationship to the Titan
Crius. Crius was the father of Perses and
Perses was the father of Hecate (Hecuba) by
Asteria. Rather than calling this scene the
"Battle of the Greeks and Amazons" it appears
to be "The rape of Hecuba, wife of King Priam
of Troy." Trojan stories are favorites in
Etruscan art. |
The following is a short explanation of
what I am trying to do with this website:
The Etruscan language involves one of the greatest mysteries and controversies in the history of archaeology, since there have been so many charlatans who have claimed to translate the language over the past hundred years or so. Many Etruscologists are invested in the theory that the language is not Indo-European and some linguists and historians even offer their own translations, adding more confusion to the problem. I approached the problem 35 years ago from a different perspective, based upon some sound principals:
1) The texts are a language intended to communicate messages;
2) since the texts are a language, the language would reflect grammatical characteristics (obey rules);
3) since rules are involved there would be repetition and
4) by isolating the repetitious words and phrases (thus, "Etruscan Phrases") one should see declension and conjugation patterns: nouns and verbs. This was the first phase of my work, my having no intention to translate but rather to establish a "map" or grammar of the language.
As the grammar unfolded I saw clear
relationships to Latin, and some to Italian and
French. I pursued the relationships to examine how
the grammar related to other Indo-European
languages, as in "Etruscan Phrases" Table 1. Finding
overwhelming evidence that Etruscan is a close
relative of Latin, I have progressed to a Glossary
and Grammar in Excel spreadsheets, where each word
has its alphanumeric locator which can be scrolled
to in the appropriate text(s) in the "Etruscan
Phrases" website. (The spreadsheets should be self
explanatory.) This process has allowed some
translation of the words based upon their close
relationship to Latin and measurable shifts to
Latin, Italian and French. I am now attempting to obtain photos of
all the scripts I can get so to further verify and
isolate the grammatical characteristics of the
language. The photos are more importantly needed for
the confirmation of the work, since all scientific
inquiry is dependent upon independent corroboration.
I have set up "Etruscan Phrases" so that anyone can
research the site and make their own determinations
from the images I supply on the site, the objective
here being to obtain agreement on the grammar and
glossary / translations. Also, the images have
physical locations — museums and
private collections — which need
to be identified as well so that they can be
examined if the need arises. This is the cataloguing
phase. I hope to make "Etruscan Phrases" a complete
catalogue of all extant Etruscan texts. Now
we can read the scripts, though progress is slow,
since all of the words in the various scripts must
be reconciled into one standing vocabulary (See Indo-European
Table 1 and our Etruscan Glossary.* For
current data see our spreadsheet Etruscan_GlossaryA.xls, showing Etruscan
correlations to Latin, French and Italian, as well
as specific locations in the Etruscan texts where
the words are used. For a study on the Romanian language
correlations to the Etruscan Glossary A.xls — provided by
Constantin Cucu — See Etruscan_GlossaryA.Constantin.xls. The Etruscan Glossary contains over 1,900
words, most of which — as can be
seen in Indo-European Table 1 — are close
to Latin. The words conjugate and decline in a
regular fashion, and consistent shifts between
Etruscan and Latin, Italian and French can be
observed. Words that are not entered into the
glossary include those that are in the Capua Tile,
which has considerable damage, and areas of other
scripts that have been damaged or are missing. What
could not be read with confidence was not entered
into the Glossary. From the Etruscan_GlossaryA.xls we have prepared Etruscan_Grammar, showing rich conjugation
and declension patterns. These patterns add
further confimation in the identification of the
Etruscan language as a tongue close to Latin,
French and Italian. A more detailed Excel
presentation of the Etruscan_Grammar, showing
the location of each word, is listed in Etruscan_GlossaryA.xls.
The Etruscan Glossary and Grammar provide a
better view of the Etruscan grammatical patterns
and phonetic styles than previously seen through
Table 1. As better copies of texts that are
difficult to read are obtained, and new texts
are added to the site, the Etruscan Glossary /
Grammar is updated. A recent update including a
series of mirrors just added to this site (Miscellaneous_texts_d_html) has increased our
confidence in the Declension Tables covering all
words in the Etruscan texts. Mirrors contain
names of heroes and gods, usually in action, and
the spelling of the names as actors in a scene
identifies the genitive or nominative case to
which they belong. For instance, the character
Ajax Telemenos clarified the nature of the
frequently used suffix, "os." Telemon is the
ancestor of the Ajax being described in the
mirror. There was another Ajax in the Trojan War
who was called "the lesser," noted as a great
spearman but smaller in frame than Ajax
Telemenos.
The Piacenza Liver, Script PL, [~34 words] An Etruscan model of a
sheep liver used for instruction in divination. This is
the latest and one of the more exciting of the Etruscan
Phrases translations. Most of the words in the text are
repeated in other Etruscan Phrases texts, and thus, using
Table 1 Vocabulary, this text was relatively easy to
understand. The words / locaters of the liver have been
added to the glossary. The liver is read from left to
right. The right-hand side leads up through the "eternal
gods" through the "arch of god" and to the "Net of
Propitiation" which begins with "The Law of the
Sheep-fold" and salvation / healing. Links to the
correlating words and texts are provided in Script PL (5.11.06)
Translation: Chiusi Fibula,
Script VF, [~6 words] Villanovan,
7th Century B.C., Louvre Museum. This fibula is
interesting since it clarifies words in Indo-European Table 1
and the Etruscan Glossary
and Grammar.
It is a gold clasp / brooch with an inscription, "my gold
brooch of praise, Nasia Maximas / Nasia the greatest." The
word for gold, "ara" is confirmed by this brooch as well
as the word for praise. (9.14.06)
Translation of
the Chimera_Script, Script CA [ 3 words] (7.17.04)
T
ranslation of
the two Lemnos
stele, Script S [~60 words] (6.13.06) This script is being reworked and seems quite
poetic, repeating the word eternal (L. aevus-i; Etr.
AFIS).
Translation
of the Tavola
Cortonensis, Script TC, [~284 words] the latest find of an Etruscan script. This is
a letter of demand which appears to relate to passage
money and is addresssed to a commander of the Etruscans.
Rasna, the name of the Etruscans, is mentioned twice in
the text. The sender appears to be of the Latins. The text
is amazingly consistent with the body of the other
Etruscan texts and from it I have acquired more
vocabulary. It seems to involve a conflict over passage
through a domain that also has a complaint regarding
daughters-in-law (nuora), thus suggesting a family
alliance that has been broken. A short introductory text
is on one side and on the reverse one finds the rest of
the message. Shades of French and Italian are strong in
this text. I am revisiting the text for the fourth time,
reconciling it to the other scripts. (11.21.05).
Translation
of the
Novilara Tablet, Script L . [~76 words] It was found near Pesaro and dates around the
5th to 4th century B. C. This script uses characters
common to the Osco-Umbrian scripts. (9.10.06).
Translation of
the Siculian
Tablet, Script F. [~ 29 words] It is a short letter from a grandson, Brutus,
to his grandfather dating around the 5th century B.C (9.11.06)
Translation of
theMagliano
Lead Disk, Script M. [~87 words] Probably the oldest of the texts dating from
circa. 600 B.C. It is written in a spiral (labyrinth)
much like the Phaestos Disk. It uses the TH more
extensively than other scripts. This script, like the
Tavola Cortonensis, is a military document, and it too
invokes Dione, Minerva and Tinia in the defense of its
oration.(Updated
6.16.06). This script has
been updated in correspondence with our Etruscan
Glossary.
Translation of Miscellaneous
Short Inscriptions.a.html, Scripts BS, AQ, LS, FT, NC,
AR, HT, MF, V, SM [~90 words] (11.26.06)
 |
 |
 |
|
Script BS-6, a mural that refers to the Chaneri (BS17) royalty who are also mentioned in Script VP |
Script
BS-1
|
Script
HT
|
The
Banquet scenes and Script HT, a tile identifying the
precinct of Hermes, are shedding considerable light on
the Etrusan beliefs. In Script For instance, Hermes
plays an important role in the burial chambers, where he
is the escort of the departed soul to the abode of the
afterlife (gods). This makes sense since Hermes is
identified as the messenger of the gods. If he brings
messages from the gods or takes messages to the gods, it
follows that he would be the one who carries the
departed soul to the gods. A curious word, AL, ends the
phrase of Script NT, but it is common to many scripts. I
thought it was similar to Italian, al, "to the," but
always recognized that Etruscan, as is true with Latin,
does not use the article, "the," so "al" had to
represent something else. It turns out, if my
interpretation of Script NT is correct, "al" is Latin
"alius," another and the word preceeding AL in Script NT
is FETVS (Lat. "fetus-us," the bringing forth or
hatching of young). Hermes is involved in the bringing
forth of another birth, and we can see that the Etruscan
view of life after death was very similar to the
Egyptian and Judaic concepts, of being reborn.
Scripts BS-1 and BS-6 – In Banquet BS-1 there is an
offering of an egg, and on the mirror where the goddess
Uni
is suckling Heracles a child-like angelic being
(Epe?) is offering an egg. In this scene a person who
appears to be the departed matron of the family is
offering an egg to the man. The same man appears to be
in Script BS-1, in the same tomb, and there he is
offering a bowl (containing a mead-like drink?) to a
younger woman, who appears to be his wife. These banquet
scenes fall in the category of "Illustrated Etruscan
literature" where the script should reflect the
illustration. Script BS-6 contains the name of a family
name, Chaneri (KANERI)
who are mentioned in an earlier sarcophagus (Script VP)
from Tarquinia, of the 4th- 5th century B.C. The Banquet
scenes, Scripts BS, are in the "Tomb of the Shields,"
Tarquinia and dated the 3rd century B.C. The "Velthur
Partunus" Script VP is about "Alisa of the clan Rameras
and she is "to us of the Chaneri royalty."
Translation
of the Zagreb
Mummy, Script Z. A mummy of a woman found in
Egypt was wrapped in linens that contained Etruscan
script.
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Script
AL
Prince Metelis |
Script
T
Prince Serelus |
Script HA Haruspex |
Script
AK Kylix from Tarquinia
|
Translation of Miscellaneous
Short Inscriptions, Scripts A, P, AB, AD, AE, AF, AG,
AT, AJ, AK, AL, TA, AN(1), AN(2), AN(3), AP, HA, LF,
AM, T ; See also Script PH,
"Phersipnei," above. (12.03.06)
[~226
words]
The orator of Script AL is Prince Metelis who appears to
be of the clan Veleres, a name appearing in many
scripts, including the Zagreb Mummy. The text (still in
work) indicates that he holds the chair of Turin. The
gens. Clensi are mentioned in this script (CLENSI).
The Clensi (K52) are associated with Queen Sarina in the
Perugia Cippus, Script K, a stele of kings and
queens. (9.23.06)
Script HA is on the left leg of the haruspex (seer),
saying, "Behold! He atoned for the faithful offspring."
This also falls within the category of "Illustrated
Etruscan literature," and we should expect the text to
explain the image. Since it does not contain a personal
name, we can presume it was not of any particular seer.
Script T – This stele is of Prince Serelus, which has
been called the Avle Luske stele, a misnomer. His armor
is like that described in the Iliad and the sword
pointing up between his legs may indicate his power as a
great warrior. Images of Mycenean swords have been found
carved on stonehenge, among many places, thus indicating
a tradition, perhaps indicating that he is under the
protection of the god of War (Roman Mars; Greek, Ares).
Part of the text is damaged but it appears to say, "To
Prince Serelus a lamentation we sing; I write in love;
in the least, he comes from Achaea."
Translation of devotional
plates (Etr. LEXAIE) from Massimo
Pallottino excavations, report "Il Santuario Di
Portonaccio a Veio" (1939-1940)
maravot.com/Translation_Shortscripts_g.html, Scripts
J1 through J22>.
Translation
of Miscellaneous Short
Inscriptions.b.html Scripts MA, RA, VP, BT, LP, TB,
FR, BB, BC, VC, OM, ON [~180 words, "LP" largely
unreadable; ON added 10.20.10]
An interesting script is BT, which has nail holes on its
right hand side, indicating it was posted against a
wall, like the Pyrgi gold tablets, as opposed to the
Tavola Cortonensis, a bronze plate designed to be hung
by a lanyard. Script LP, "Laris Pulena," is a long
inscription that I have tentatively translated. The
image I have is hard to read and when I get a better
copy I will be able to finish this translation. Most of
the words in the text are common to the Etruscan
vocabulary. The urn is in the Museo Archeologico,
Tarquinia. The text refers to the "divine Tarquins." The
recently added text involving Dionysian rites, ON,
recalls Old Latin. Of particular interest is ON-5,
TVODEITXES (L. duodecie(n)s?). The "O" and "D" are rare
in Etruscan.
Script VP is interesting, located in the Museo
Archeologico, Tarquinia. It dates from circa. 480 B.C. -
320 B.C. and is of "Alisa, of the clan Rameras, the new
Cocle." Horatius Cocles, is the Roman who
defended the bridge over the Tiber against Porsenna,
after the Romans expelled Tarquin the Proud in 510 B.C.
Tarquin the Proud, also called Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus or Tarquin II, was the 7th and last king of
Rome. He ruled for 24 years, from 535-510 B.C. The
deposed monarch, whose family was of Etruscan origin,
appealed to the Etruscan king, Lars Porsena, of Clusium
(now Chiusi), for assistance in suppressing the new
Roman Republic, and Lars Porsena agreed to help.
There are two other scripts that refer to the Tarquins.
Script
A identifies the tomb of Tanaqil, the wife of
Tarquin the Great (Lucius Tarquinius Priscus), 5th king
of Rome. She and her husband, Tarquin the Great, are
depicted on a mirror, Script
DL, "Mirror from Tuscania" where an augur reads a
sheep's liver in the presence of Tarquin, Tanaqil and
the god Veltune. He says, "Fear Tarquins" (Pave
Tarquii). Tanaqil was a highborn and ambitious Etruscan
woman who urged her husband to move from Tarquinia to
Rome in order to advance his fortunes. Her training in
the Etruscan art of augury often aided her husband in
his affairs. At his death her strong-mindedness and
quick thinking assured the throne to their son-in-law,
Servius Tullius, in accordance with her husband's
wishes.
Translation
of Miscellaneous Short
Inscriptions.d.html, Scripts AC, BR , AV, SC ;
and
Mirrors: BM, DJ, DG, DD, DC, DB, DA, DE,
DF, DG, DK, DN Script AC is written around an
aryballos. We need an image detailing the other side
of the aryballos to complete a translation. It
refers to the mistress Turan (Aphrodite, Venus).
Script BR is a bowl / plate
found in Rome with other shards at the base of the
Capitol. It carries two interesting words that
relate to other declensions involving the suffix
"ii," as in RASIIA, ANIIA and Tarquii.
Script SC is a small shard from Cetamura and
indicative of the importance of a small piece of
pottery carrying text, for the text is LAVS
INI...The word, LAVS (L. laus, laudis, praise) is
used in Script TC, Tabula_Cortonensis.html,
TC-211 is in the following context: LAVS ISA. The
Cortonensis text appears to controvert the
translation of the Cetamura shard by Dr. Nancy
Thomson de Grummond, Florida State University, who
stated that the shard contains the name of the
owner: "Lausini." (Updated 5.30.09)
Translation of Miscellaneous Short
Inscriptions.e.html, Scripts PA, PB, PC, PD, PE,
PJ, PK, PL, PM, PN, PO, PQ
More mirrors:
Translation of Miscellaneous Short
Inscriptions.f.html, Scripts from the
multivolume work, "Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum,"
CAA, CB, CC, CD, CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CL, CM, CN, CO,
CP, CQ, CR, CS, CT, CU, CV, CX, CY (2.17.07). These include mirrors in museums and
private collections published under the auspices of
the International Scientific Committe for the Corpus
of Etruscan Mirrors. The mirrors are important since
they carry an illustration of an event and the
characters associated with the event, including the
Etruscan name of the character. The name and words
help to reconcile declension and conjugaation
patterns of the texts on the "Etruscan Phrases"
site. We reviewed all of the "Corpus Speculorum
Etruscorum" volumes and found only these mirrors
that contained text that could be verified. A few
mirrors were in such bad condition, though the
"Corpus" editor(s) produced a transcription, I could
not verify the results from the image(s) supplied in
the "Corpus" and thus chose not to include them
here.
The images produced on this site from the volumes
focus on the text of the mirror, which explains why
the reader will often see only a portion of the
mirror. We will, of course, supply better images
when we get them. The mirrors may be objects of art
to art history buffs, but to the Etruscans they were
essential to their daily grooming and were obviously
in high demand, with over 3,000 mirrors extant. They
were found with grave goods intended to accompany
the departed in his / her quest for eternal life,
through the Underworld. Erebus (Etr. Arepes?) and
the throne of King Hades (Etr. Atai) and Queen
Persephone (Etr. Phersipnei). The stories on the
mirrors were derived essentially from Greek myths,
but from the spelling of the names, such as APVLV
(Apollo) we note that the mirrors were intended for
those who could read the Etruscan language. Of
interest with regard to this point is the fact that
the mirrors were found throughout the western
Mediterranean, from Central France to the upper
reaches of the Black Sea.
The Etruscans were known for their seamanship and in
the myth of Dionysus, the god of wine, we are told
that he was kidnapped by Tyrrhenian pirates
(Etruscans), and during the episode he cast a spell
on the ship, causing it to be invaded by wild
animals, including lions, panthers and tigers. This
frightened the pirates such that they jumped
overboard, leaving Dionysus alone on the ship.
Dionysus continued his journey through Egypt to
spread his cult of wine around the world. It would
be informative to find a mirror that told the
Etruscan version of the pirate story. We do have
their version of the story of Dionysus' first
disciple, Icarius, which is on the Schøyen Mirror, MS 565/2.
The story of
Helen of Troy on an Etruscan Mirror, Divine_Mirror.html,
Scripts
DM and OB [~19 words/names] This mirror is one of the most interesting
and informative Etruscan texts. It has the names of
the characters in the story of Helen of Troy and is
an excellent illustration of the Etruscan ability to
tell an entire story through graphic images. The
story is told from the Etruscan point of view, with
a Lydian bias, as it were. It is important because
it defines the gods used in the mirror in the
context of the story of the Iliad. We can see that
the consort of Tinia (Zeus) is Ralna (Nemesis).
There are two interesting characters that are
strictly "Lydian" : MEAN and LASA THIMRAE. MEAN is
the Roman Diana, Greek Artemis, virgin goddess of
the hunt and sister of Apollo. She can be contrasted
to the Asian, Ephesian Artemis, who appears to be a
mother goddess, not a virgin. LASA THIMRAE appears
to be the Lydian goddess Thimrae, possibly the
prophetess Cassandra, daughter of Priam. The Trojans
worshipped at the temple of Apollo Thymbrae. The
temple name is after the river Thymbra which empties
into the Scamander river. Cassandra got her
prophetic powers when sleeping in the temple.
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|
Mirror, DM |
Mirror, DL |
Mirror, AH |
The Divine_Mirror tells the story of
the bargain Agamemnon made with Helen for her hand
in marriage to his brother Menelaus, the abudction
of Helen by Alexander (Paris) prince of Troy. In the
Judgment of Paris, Alexander was asked to judge
between Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, as to which was
the fairest. Alexander chose Aphrodite (Etr. TVRAN).
The son of King Priam of Troy, Aescus (Etr. Aecai)
prophesied that Alexander would be the cause of the
destruction of Troy. Cassandra also prophesied of
its destruction, but when she received her gift of
prophecy she was told that no one would believe her.
The goddess Artemis (Etr. MEAN), virgin of the hunt
and sister of Apollo, was also involved with the
prophecy, since Agamemnon had bragged that he could
shoot as well as Artemis. An anomaly exists in this
mirror, however, since the name MEAN appears above
the head of the character known as Artemis. The name
Artemis appears in many other Etruscan mirrors,
causing one to wonder why that character was given
the name MEAN in the "Divine Mirror." If the prophet
Calchas is to believed, Artemis was so enraged over
the idle boast she demanded the sacrifice of
Agamemnon's daughter, Iphigenia. When the sacrafice
was about to be made, Artemis switched the girl for
a deer and sent her off to become a high priestess
of the Taurians. In the mirror MEAN is accompanied
by a deer and is crowning Alexander, while Agememnon
shakes hands with Helen, to the alarm of Aescus
(Etr. Aecai) while LASA THIMRAE, who carries a wand
and an unguent bottle, departs the room. The unguent
bottle is seen in many Etruscan tomb murals.
In the top panel of the mirror are four figures of
interest: TVRAN (Aphrodite) HERCLE (Heracles) EPEVR
(Epior?) TINIA (Etr. Zeus) and RALNA (Nemesis?). Of
the characters shown in the mirror, Heracles is the
most perplexing, who holds a cherub, EPEVR, in his
hand. Heracles had no involvement in the Trojan War,
to our recollection. EPEVR or EPE VR appears to be
the son, Eros, of TVRAN (Aphrodite). Some accounts
say that Aphrodite caused her cherub-like son to
shoot his arrows of love at Helen, causing her to
fall in love with Alexander. The presentation of
EPEVR appears to suggest that Heracles is the father
of Eros by Aphrodite, an anamoly. Aphrodite was also
involved in the conception of Helen, since she
pursued Zeus, causing him to change into a swan in
his chase of Nemesis, who had changed into a goose.
Zeus caught Nemesis who laid an egg containing the
most beautiful girl in the world, Helen. The egg was
given to Leta, the wife of KingTyndareus of Sparta,
who raised the child as her own. Aphrodite had other
lovers, such as Anchises, and gave birth to a son by
him whose name is Aeneas.
The suffix "ia" in Tinia, and "ai" in the name of
Helen, Elenai, led to the identification of the
suffixes as determinants for proper names (genitive
case?), as in the case of Atai (Hades), Acai
(Aesacus) and Phersipnei (Persephone), the latter
seen in the judgment scene of the tomb of
Orcus. Helen's name is spelled in another
declension as ELENEI on mirror MM-1. Also on this page is a
mirror, Script OB, from Tarquinia in the possession
of Oberlin College that is of the Judgment of Paris,
containing the names, MINRFA (Minerva), Uni, Turan
and a variant spelling of Alexandar; i.e, on DM-6,
ELCHINTRE and OB-4, ELACHSNTRE. (12.08.07)
Translation of the Mirror from Tuscania, Script DL
, [10
words] that shows the
divination of a liver for lord Tarquin (AUL
TARCHONOS). "Fear Tarquins," (TARCHIE) it concludes.
(05.08.06)
The
Volterra mirror, Script AH, [~11 words] "Uni Suckling Hercules.html" containing
heroes and a script common to the Divine_Mirror.html. (Updated 9.26.06). The
Volterra mirror is another script falling into the
category, "Illustrated Etruscan literature," and
thus we can expect the text to coincide with the
illustration. The genitive case of Uni, VNIA, is
used in this script, as well as Au-13. The page also
contains a mirror of Dionysus, Semele & Apollo,
Script SF. More mirrors are at Miscellaneous Short
Inscriptions.d.html: BM, DD, DC, DB, DA, DE, DF,
DG, DH, DK, DN, DO Script DF carries another
complex story, combining that of Orestes with Jason,
the leader of the Argonauts who sought the Golden
Fleece. Both stories involve the revenge of the son
of the father's murder. Orestes took revenge upon
Clytemnestra, his mother, and her lover, over their
murder of Agamemnon. Jason, son of Aeson, took
revenge upon Pelias who had murdered his
half-brother, Aeson, for the throne of Iolcus.
Translation of the Zagreb Mummy, Script Z. A
mummy of a woman found in Egypt was wrapped in
linens that contains the longest Etruscan text.
Translation of sheet 1
of the Pyrgi Gold Tablets, Script Au. [~72 words] These gold tablets were found in the
sanctuary of Pyrgi, dating circa. 5th century B.C. This
is an oration during the Festival of Hera with regard to
a controversy (polemic) involving the goddess Aph. The
Etruscan tablets are a dedication to Uni, the Roman
Juno, and affirms her seat as the main sigoddess of the
site. She is addressed in the two tablets both as Uni,
the Etruscan Juno, whose name may also be in the text as
IVNO. Juno is the moth and fertility goddess of the
Romans and the occasion of the dedication is on the
feast called Heraea (L. Heraea-orum). The oration calls
Uni and Janus, the god of wisdom, to the rock together
before the Italian magistrates' seats to resolve a
controversy (polemic). The beginning of the oration
acknowledges the goddess Thia, (L. Dia-ae), mother of
Mercury (Gr. Hermes) "to you Maia" and the god Janus.
Maia was the oldest daughter of Atlas and the Oceanid
Pleione. One of the Pleaides, Maia was shy and lived
quietly in a cave on Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia. Zeus
seduced her, from which a son, Hermes, was born. Hermes
was a precocious child and while still in swaddling
clothes stole the cattle of Apollo, hiding them in his
mother's cave. Hermes (Roman Mercury) seems to have
played a very strong role in the Etruscan religion, and
a dedication of his feast days can be read at Script
HT. Mercury seems to have had a large presence in
Celtic religion as well.
May is named after the goddess Maia, the wife of Mars.
May is a month of purification and religious ceremony in
honor of the dead. Hermes (Mercury) was the messenger of
the gods and appears to play a major role, as the transporter
of the soul, in the Etruscan view of the
afterlife. Janus was the doorkeeper of heaven in Roman
mythology and the god of beginnings and endings. He was
originally a supreme deity, like Zeus and Jupiter, and
was the mediator of prayers and petitions to the other
gods. His blessing was asked at the beginning of every
day, month and year. January was named after him. He
also presided over the sowing of crops, and Roman
commanders departed through the doors of his temple,
which were closed only in times of peace. He was
represented in art with two faces, looking in opposite
directions, symbolizing his knowledge of the past and
future.
The Pyrgi Gold Tablets are curious from the standpoint
that they are a dedication of the Festival of Hera
(Heraea). The festival – games for young virgin women –
in ancient times preceded the Olympic Games held for
males. Both games were associated with lunar calendar
dating systems, often varying among the Greek City
States. The date of the games served to regulate the
calendars, and sometimes the Olympiad and the Heraea
conflicted in their timing, so the dates of the
festivals were reset to avoid the conflict. The conflict
and dates of the festivals is described by http://phoenixandturtle.net/excerptmill/harrison.htm:
We have seen that the Olympic festival was a moveable feast, and occurred alternately in Apollonios and Parthenios, which were probably the second and third months of the Elean year. This variation of the month is a strange and inconvenient arrangement. Moreover it is unique. The Pythia also were held at intervals of 50 and 49 months, but the incidence of the intercalated months of the octennial period was so arranged that the festival itself always fell in the same month (Bukatios) of the Delphic year. In the same way the Panathenaea, though penteteric, always fell in Hekatombaion. There must have been some very strong reason for the troublesome variation of months in the sole case of the most important of panhellenic gatherings.
Weniger finds the reason in the existence of an older immovable festival at the very season at which the reconstituted Games were to be fixed. Every fourth year a college called the Sixteen Women wove a robe for Hera and held games called the Heraea. The games consisted of a race between virgins, who ran in order of age, the youngest first, and the eldest last. The course was the Olympic stadium, less about one-sixth of its length (i.e. 500 instead of 600 Olympic feet). The winners received crowns of olive and a share of the cow sacrificed to Hera. ÔThey trace the origin of the games of the virgins, like those of the men, to antiquity, saying that Hippodameia, out of gratitude to Hera for her marriage with Pelops, assembled the Sixteen Women, and along with them arranged the Heraean games for the first time.Õ
It is highly probable that these games of virgins (Parthenia) gave its name to the month Parthenios, and were in honour of Hera Parthenos—Hera whose virginity was perpetually renewed after her sacred marriage with Zeus. It is also probable that they were held at the new moon, that is, on the first day of Parthenios. Further, if these games gave the month its name, in that month they must always have fallen. Thus the octennial period of the Heraea is of the usual straightforward type, which keeps always to the same month. The natural inference is that the Heraea were first in the field, and that, when the menÕs games were fixed at the same season, it was necessary to avoid this older fixed festival. At the same time, if the games of Zeus were allowed to be established regularly in the middle of the previous month Apollonios, it was obvious that the Heraea would sink into a mere appendage. Zeus, on the other hand was not inclined to yield permanent precedence to Hera. The deadlock was solved by a characteristic compromise. The octennial period for the Games of Zeus was so arranged that in alternate Olympiads they should fall fourteen days before, and fourteen days after, the Heraea (on Apollonios 14/15 and Parthenios 14/15). By this device of priestly ingenuity the honour of both divinities was satisfied, and so the inconvenient variation of months for the Olympic festival is explained.
The Heraea, then, were probably older than the reconstituted Olympia; and if they gave its name to the month Parthenios, they must have been annual before they were octennial or penteteric. They carry us back to the old lunar year, which preceded the combined sun-and-moon penteteris.
If the reference to Maia also acknowledges the
calendar date of the Heraea held in Pyrgi, we are tempted
to postulate that the confusing, mysterious date for the
Heraea, at least among the Etruscans, coincided with the
later Roman month of Maius. Like the old Greek lunar
calendars, the early Roman calendar involved 10 months:
Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis, Sextilis,
September, October, November and December (September,
"seventh month," October, "eighth month," November, "ninth
month," and December, "tenth month." The calendar was
later revised to include ianuarius and Februarius. In
order to keep the calendar year roughly aligned with the
solar year, Numa, the second king of Rome (715-673 B.C.),
added an "intercalated" month every other year at the end
of February of 22 -27 days, called the Interclaris, or
Mensis Intercalaris, sometimes also known as Mercedonius
or Mercedinus. The leap month was added from time to time
at the end of February, which was shortened to 23 or 24
days. The resulting year was either 377 or 378 days long.
We know that the Etruscans used "Roman numerals" in their
dating system, seen in Scripts AN, for instance. Since the
Romans received their alphabet (that which is used for
English) from the Etruscans, we can rightfully assert that
the Roman Numerals should be called "Etruscan Numerals,"
setting the heritage where it belongs. The Roman Calendar
may also owe its origin to the Etruscans, who no doubt
were influenced by the Greek calendars of 10 lunar months.
As may be revealed in the Pyrgi Gold Tablets, the Etruscan
calendar may, in fact, be influenced by the date of the
Heraea Festival, just as the Greek calendar(s) were
influenced by the Heraea and the Olympiad held every four
years. The following, which is relevant to the date of the
Pyrgi Heraea, is from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad:
An Olympiad, especially in ancient literature, was a period of four years (Polybius, Histories 9.1.1) counting inclusively (the fifth year during which the games were held was also the first year in the beginning of the new cycle), starting with the games at Olympia. The ancient Olympics, it is believed, originated from Heracles, the eldest of five brothers, who matched them in a race and crowned the winner with an olive branch. The games, in accordance with the number of brothers, were held every fifth year (Pausanias, Description of Greece (Elis 1) 5.7.6-9). By our modern calendar system (Gregorian), the first Olympiad is reckoned to the year 776 BC, which year is arrived at deductively. The first year of the common era (1 CE/AD) is equivalent to the seven-hundred and fifty-fourth year from the founding of Rome (AUC 754) according to the Varronian epoch. The founding of Rome, in turn, is testified as being April 21, in the third year of the sixth Olympiad (OL 6) (Plutarch, Romulus 23-24; Eutropius, History 1.1). So deductively speaking, the first year of the games and the start of the first Olympiad was the summer of 776 BC.
We may conclude that the Festival of the Heraea
referred to in the Pyrgi tablets has to do with the first
month of the Etruscan year, probably coinciding with the
Elean month Parthenios. That the mother of Mercury is
addressed in the Pyrgi dedication — both as Dia and Maia — suggests a coincidence
with the old Roman month, Maius (May). Uni (Juno) and
Ianas (Janus) are addressed in the scripts. The month of
June (after Juno) follows May and January (named after
Janus, the god of ports and doors, beginnings and endings,
became the 11th month, after which February was added. We
may assume for the moment that the Etruscans at Pyrgi had
only a 10 month calendar, and beginning with Martius as
the first month would celebrate Juno's feast day, March 1,
called the Matronalia, the primary feast of Juno, the
chief Roman goddess. On this day, lambs and other cattle
were sacrificed to her. Also on this day the Feriae Marti,
the festival of Mars, the Roman god of war, was held.
March 1 is also New Year's Day in the old Roman calendar.
Maius is the third month of the old Roman calendar, and on
May 1 a cow was sacrificed to Maia, the mother of Mars
(Gr. Ares). May 1 was also the Celtic feast of Beltane,
marking the first day of Summer. May 15 was the festival
of the Mercuralia, the festival of Mercury, the Roman god
of merchants and travellers. April 9 was the feast of
Ishtar, known today as Easter, and April 18 was when the
festival of Maia began (see http://syrylynrainbowdragon.tripod.com/april.html).
It may be that the Etruscan Heraea was coincident with the
Feast of Ishtar then in the 6th century B.C., somehow
relating to the "3rd month," of Maius (May). Perhaps
further examination of the Pyrgi Gold Tablets will clarify
this. The third sheet is in Punic and refers to the
goddess Ishtar. Updated 9.14.06)
Translation
of sheet 2
of the Pyrgi Gold Tablets, Script Au, [~105 words] This page carries the second page of the Pyrgi
script. Also on the page is a third gold tablet which is
in Phoenician, "Lamina B" script. Images of the gold
sheets are from "The Etruscans." (5) Its
translation by Sabatino Moscati is:
To [our] Lady Ishtar. This is the holy place // which was made and donated // by TBRY WLNSH [= The faries
Velianas] who reigns on // Caere [or: on the Caerites], during the month of the sacrifice // to the Sun, as a gift
in the temple. He b//uilt an aedicula [?] because Ishtar gave in his hand [or: raised him with her hand] // to
reign for three years in the m//onth of KRR [=Kerer], in the day of the burying // of the divinity. And the years
of the statue of the divinity // in his temple [might be ? are ?] as many years as these stars.
The Etruscan scripts largely coincide with the
Phoenician. There are some corrections, however. Velianas
is Fel Ianus (the great Janus).
Fel is a term meaning "great" used frequently in the
Etruscan scripts on this site. The name Caere is read as
"heart" in the context of getting to the heart or kernel
of the matter which concludes acknowledging the polemic
involving the goddess Aph. Updated (9.14.06)
The Tavola
Eugubine Script N is being updated based upon
better images of the tablets. [~755 words] A general note on the Tavola Eugubine should be
listed here. The vocabulary is consistent with the
vocabulary used in the other Etruscan scripts on this
website. To translate an
entire corpus of scripts, using common grammatical rules
and a consistent vocabulary, without a "Rosetta Stone," is
a big challenge in itself. But one can make a fair
translation, knowing that all languages have rules of
grammar and following the rules there is the liklihood of
repetition. These scripts, together with the Zagreb Mummy
script, fortunately contain a lot of repitition. And they
use the same grammar/vocabulary; and both are consistent
with other scripts. Where you see an alpha-numeric locater
for a word, which points to several different Etruscan
scripts, know that the same word works well in the same
context in the translations where it appears. The Tavola
is thus Etruscan.
My vocabulary, built from the
various scripts, defines what Etruscan is. It is old, rich
in inflections, like Latin and Greek. It is like Latin but
recalls shades of Italian and French. These are the
closest languages to which Etruscan is related. (01.24.07).
Translation
of the Tavola Eugubine Script Q [~920 words] – Script "Q" is a funeral oration and like
Script N interchanges repeated formulas which contain the
names of gods who were on the side of Troy during the
Trojan war. We have added copies of the images, from Citta di Gubbio to complement / verify our
transcription.
The ephitets towards the end of
the text focus on Eos (the goddess of dawn; also the dawn)
and Apollo who in a more ancient form was linked to the
sun god, Helios. Escaping the sometimes impish Eros, god
of love, is mentioned; Venus, the goddess of love, Jupiter
and others are placed in the context of salvation,
returning to the day. The repetition of "blessed" and many
synonyms used for death, wasting away, etc. demonstrate
their preoccupation with it. This text also addresses the
demon Tuchulcha, not by name, but as TRE 8IPER, Tre Viper.
He as well as a host of gods and goddesses are addressed
in the context of being chased away, using a verb (L.
abeo) "be off with you." The formulas recount how the
people in the crowd are brothers of Atigerius the
patriarch of the gens of Cato. Script Q shows the way the
Etruscans expressed themselves during a funeral liturgy,
recalling the repitition we have all seen in most
liturgical documents. Page is being updated based on the better
images. (02.11.08).
Translation
of the Tavola
Eugubine Script R. [~671 words] This
is a blessing of the people through supplication of the
gods. It is a feast of lights, and it begins with an
address to Oph (L. Ops, goddess of abundance?): "you pull,
bring forth the day." The blessing refers to a pyre and
various images, linking the light of the pyre and the
sprinkling of water in the names of specific gods and
godesses. The orator calls out/summons Apollo, Phabia, the
goddess of the moon, Lune (Diana), Phobea, etc. in
addressing the castle which is apparently located in Pisa.
The ritual connects an ancient form of Apollo (Phoebus)
with Helios, the sun, and in the middle of the text the
orator contrasts a goddess of the earth, Eph, with the
moon and the sun. Tavola II para. 2 appears to be a
letter, addressed to the descendents of Atigerius in
Achaia; it also addresses the same in Gordos, and the port
of Pyrae. It complains about the sacrifice of mares
without blemish, endorsing the sacrifice of lambs. It is a
celebration of light which is illuminated by Script "G"
which repeats some phrases (R164; R204) in script "R." And
these repititions are connected with the aegis of
Jupiter/Zeus which is the source of lightning. The
Etruscans interpreted lightning bolts. (Being updated,
reflecting the Etruscan Glossary and Grammar, 2.11.08).
Translation
of the Tavola
Eugubine Script G. [~45 words] A short
text which is written by another hand which renders the
"T" as a "Y". The hand that wrote Script "N" and "Q" is
not the same as the one that wrote script "R," and "G" is
completely different. See comment on Script "R," for both
scripts cover a festival of "lights" which refers to a
three-fold supremacy or monarchy: that of three planes.
Three are noted: the goddess Eph, who is of the earth;
Jupiter, the sky-god; and Lune, the goddess of the moon.
The pyres appear to be related to the worship of Eph and
also Pha and symbolic of the light of the sun and the
moon; and Jupiter/Tini/Zeus rule over all through their
shield (aegis) of lightning bolts. The introductory phrase
of this script is a repeat of a phrase in script R. The
script concludes, "I go before the arbitrator himself." (9.29.06)
Transl
ation, Aph.html,
an inscription from Santa Marinella. This text is on two
sides of a lead foil, found in a temple precinct believed
to be dedicated to the goddess Minerva (Gr. Athena). The
text begins rather with an address to Uni (Juno; Gr. Hera)
. Although there are claims that this is dedicated to
Minerva, her name is not on this image or the
transcriptions seen on the lead foil. The Pyrgi scripts
mention a controversy over the goddess Aph, which name is
mentioned in this script as well. Ashtar is mentioned on
the Punic gold tablet found with the Etruscan Pyrgi gold
tablets. (12.11.06).
Translation of Lydian,
showing its relationship to the Etruscan language (new 6.26.06).
Translation of
Phrygian, showing its relationship to the Etruscan
language . Of interest is the discovery of a stele from
Southeastern Turkey, Zincirli, that appears to record in
the Phrygian language the conquest of that area by the
Assyrian king, Sennacherib (704-681 B.C.). The area is
known to historians as Cilicia, and the eastern corner
(area of the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers) is recorded in
Assyrian documents as Kûe or Que. The text of the Phrygian
relief from Zincirli lists the name Kuom. Because the
Phrygian script is from an area that is not recognized by
archeologists as part of Phrygia (Phrygia proper being far to
the west of Turkey, in the bend of the Halys river), the
stele implies an extension of the dominion of Phrygia well
beyond the territory attributed to them by historians.
Because of this anomaly we revisited the abundant Assyrian
texts from the 12th century B.C. to the time of
Sennacherib to ascertain any connection from the Assyrian
records that would imply Phrygian sovereignty over the
area of Que. The records not only confirmed that the
Phrygians (called Muski, Mushki, by the Assyrians)
possessed Que, the texts ( of Assur-nâsir-pal
(884-859 B.C. ) also
locate the Phrygians just across the Tigris river from
Armenia (Urartu). This may imply that the Phrygians
entered Anatolia (Turkey) by way of the Caucasus Mountains, against the
historical theory that they crossed the Hellespont from
Thrace into Anatolia. Equally fascinating are the
monuments of the "Three Kalas" of Midas City, located near
the Halys River, that appears to contain the name of the
mythical Phrygian king Midas. King Midas is remembered as
the king of the Mygdonians of Phrygia, son of king Gordius
and the goddess Cybele who founded Ancyra (Ankara). He is
said to have been the discoverer of both black and white
lead, but he is best known for his connections with gold.
While the god Dionysus was on his expedition to India with
his train, old Seilenus wandered away and was captured by
Phrygian peasants, who took him to the king. Some say that
Midas caught him by mixing wine with water in a spring,
presumably in the hope of profiting from his prophetic
powers. In either case, the king entertained Seilenus
graciously and then gave him a guide to lead him back to
Dionysus and his company. Dionysus was so grateful to
Midas that he offered to grant any boon that he asked.
Midas, who was fond of luxury, asked that all he touched
might turn to gold. Reluctantly the god consented. Midas
was at first delighted with the results, but he soon
discovered that when he tried to eat, the food turned to
metal. Before long the ravenously hungry king was begging
Dionysus to take back his miraculous gift. The god could
not do that, but he advised Midas to wash in the river
Pactolus. The king did so and his "golden touch" was
transferred to the river, which forever after had
gold-bearing sands. Midas then was asked to judge between
Pan and Apollo as to which was the better lyre player.
Midas awarded Pan with the distinction, but Apollo was so
wrathful over the decision he changed the ears of Midas
into the ears of an ass. He wore a Phrygian cap with its
flaps covering his ears after that and only his barber
knew that his ears were the ears of an ass. The barber
could not keep the secret and one day whispered the secret
into a hole in a deserted meadow. Reeds grew up on the
spot and began whispering the secret. From that day
passersby were astonished to hear them murmuring, "Midas
has ass's ears." Historically, Midas was one dynastic
title — alternating
with the name of Gordius — of a succession of Phrygian kings who ruled in
the valley of the Sangarius River. Gordion was their
capital city. The Assyrian texts refer to the name of
Midas (Mitâ); Sargon II (704- 705 B.C.) reports: "[I} drove out Mitâ, king of Muski; who restored
the captured fortresses of Kûe." (1.03.08).
The
Etruscans' view of their faith — after death — Etruscan_Faith.html
LINKS of interest
(Etruscan_Phrases_f.html)
Old Etruscan_Phrases_a.html (now
Etruscan_Phrases_x.html)
Visitors. I am
overwhelmed by the amount of response to this site and
thank you for visiting what I believed over the years to
be an esoteric work.
Notes:
(1) Illiad, translated by W. H.
D. Rouse, A Mentor book, 1938, pp. 265 ff. All quotes on
the Illiad are from the Rouse translation.
(2) Praying to the North Wind and the West Wind.
Compare the importance of the Wind gods in the ceremony
to their function in the Rig Veda, quoted in Banquet of the
Gods.
(3) Following this Achilles began the games, consisting
of chariot races, boxing and wrestling matches, spear
throwing, throwing a lump of iron, and other feats.
(4) An interesting comment by the Roman historian
Suetonius (70 A.D. - 130 or 140 A.D) refers to an
Etruscan word. About 100 days before Augustus Caesar's
death a bolt of lightning struck a statue of Caesar near
the Campus Martius. A bronze plaque on the statue
contained the word, Caesar, and the bolt melted the "C"
in his name, leaving the letters, aesar. The "flash of
lightning ..was interpreted to mean that he would live
only a hundred days from that time, the number indicated
by the letter C, and that he would be numbered with the
gods, since aesar (that is, the part of the name
Caesar which was left) is the word for god in the
Etruscan tongue." [Lives of the Caesars,
Suetonius, "The Diefied Augustus," XCVII]. There is one
Etruscan word, AIS, that comes near to "aesar," and it
appears in the Zagreb Mummy Script. In most
instances it appears as a single word, AIS, and in a
compound, AIS AN. At the end of the script, Z1861, the
contruction, AIS ERAS appears. I translated AIS as
"bronze object" and its use was in the context of
worship, i.e., Z1861 "they shall turn / change; to the
bronze you wander; to Zeus of the serene trellis you
assemble."
(5) "The Etruscans,"
Federica Borrelli and Maria Cristina Targia, translated
by Thomas Michael Hartmann, The J. Paul Getty Museum,
Los Angeles, 2004, J. P. Getty Trust.
(6) Bibliographical Data from our earlier
work, "Catalogue of Etruscan Words," 1981, pdf
file.
(7) Comment on Sources: Sources used in "Etruscan Phrasaes," are
quoted in situ, as we prefer to place a link to
the source where it applies. It is easier to update and,
for the reader, easier to use. We may not agree with the
data in all sources linked in "Etruscan Phrases." All of
the data pertaining to the translation, grammar, and
process of translating, the Etruscan language is
original to this work and not developed from any other
source. Because the common understanding among
Etruscologists was that the "Etruscan language is not
Indo-European and an isolate, unlike any language,
modern or dead," which is contrary to the presentation
of "Etruscan Phrases," there has been no need to refer
to those sources, except as noted in situ on
these pages. We credit sources on photographs, etc.,
where possible.
My commentary relative to the history of the Etruscans
is a composite, sifted from many works, including those
listed in the "Catalogue of Etruscan Words,"
bibliographical data which include perhaps one of the
best works on the Etruscans: "The Etruscans," by Massimo
Pallottino, Indiana University Press, 1975 (first
published in 1942). An Etruscologist from Italy
categorized the "Etruscan...non-Indo-European theorists"
in an email to the author as the "Pallottino School," an
appropriate nomenclature, I think. However, my
"Catalogue of Etruscan Words," 1981, used examples from
Staccioli's works to illustrate the erroneous linguistic
view we can call the "Pallottino School." Pallottino's
Part 3, "The Etruscan Language," includes a short
"vocabulary" and pronunciation table that is based on
the study of short inscriptions, usually on tombs. His
analysis covers the efforts of those who preceeded him.
Their conclusions on the language have been misleading
scholars at least since 1942. I am indebted to Edward
Tripp's "The Meridian Handbook of Classical Mythology,"
New American Library, 1974 for the Greek Mythology used
in "Etruscan Phrases."
*Background documents:
—
(Etruscan_Phrases_b.html)
(Etruscan_Phrases_e.html)
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up to Maravot's_Index.html
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Copyright © 1981-2012 Maravot. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 1981-2012 Mel Copeland. All rights reserved.
Use of the information on this page is expressly
forbidden for purposes of publication in any media
without the prior written consent of the author.
Translation:
Schøyen Mirror,
"Ikarius," Script MS,
6th Century B.C. [~26
words] This mirror is interesting
since it contains many words in Indo-European Table 1
and the Etruscan Glossary & Grammar. It contains the
word 8RATER, brother, that corresponds to Latin
frater-tris, with several declensions, in the Tavola
Eugubine, Scripts N, R and G. The text can be seen to
relate to the story written on the mirror. This is, thus,
the first of the Etruscan "literature," that can be
demonstrated. The story depicted on the mirror is of
Icarius, the first disciple of Dionysus, the god of wine.
The story of Icarius is unusual since it involves his
faithful dog Maera who sets off with him in a chariot to
spread the word of wine cultivation to the world. The
first encounter they had was with shepherds who got drunk
from the wine and thought Icarius had possessed them. They
killed the disciple of wine and left his faithful dog
wailing beside Icarius. Icarius' daughter came out looking
for her missing father and the wailing dog led her to his
burial place. She was so bereaved over his death she hung
herself in the tree beside her father's burial. Then the
dog jumped into a nearby well. The Athenians afterwards
created a festival in honor of the event, where young
virgin girls would swing in trees during the harvest of
grapes. While the character in the mirror could suggest
Dionysus himself, the image of the dog prancing alongside
the chariot established that the story was of Icarius. The
first word of the text is IKRA.
Other, important scripts reflecting a coincidence between
a scene and its script is the "Rape of Hecuba," reviewed
above (1.31.06)
the Volterra Mirror (2.01.06)
and Script V: "Alcestis and Admetus."
Translation of the
Perugia Cippus, Script K. [~195 words] It contains a list of queens and refers to
their power and relationships. Much of the script seems to
be a record of a Queen Sarina. Her bust is in the Louvre
Museum. She was an extraordinarily beautiful woman, as can
be seen from the bronze bust. The bronze has her name
inscribed on its forehead. I have updated the translation
reflecting findings from the other scripts and reviewing a
better copy of the script supplied by the Perugia Museum.
We can confirm the word, RINA, queen, used throughout this
text with a name, like SARINA, through the bronze bust in
the Louvre. The text is unusual since it lists queens and
no king is mentioned.
The cippus
is proving to be a history
and most interestingly seems to have identified a Queen
Hinera of the Valley of Fiesole (ancient Florence) – see
K65, K66 – whose name also appears in the Zagreb Mummy's
wrappings closest to the mummy's body. This has to be
verified, but it may be that between the two documents
there is a disclosure of not only the Queen of the
Etruscan city Fiesole but also the name of the person of
the Zagreb Mummy, who died in Egypt,
Hinera, the queen of Fiesole (Florence)? This is, thus,
becoming an Etruscan history, not from others, such as the
Romans and Greeks, but from the Etruscans themselves. K65
is the beginning of a new section of the text, suggesting
that the previous section deals with a dynasty of the
Clensi, featuring Queen Sarina (K45-K52). The Clensi are
mentioned in the text on the bronze statue of Prince
Metelis. So far, we have three
documents being linked together in the Perugia Cippus.
Of interest are words on the lateral side of the cippus
that seem to be more related to the Italian language: K188
—
RONCHVLeR (RVNKVLeR),
to swallow up (It. ringolare —
ringhiottire) or to recoil, fall back, withdraw (It.
rinculare; reculer; L. recello-ere) and K194
—
CECHASI
(CEKASI),
(It. checchessia, anything, everything, chicchessia,
anyone, anybody; Fr. quelquechose). This is the more
challenging part of the text which seems to conclude: "and
indeed the gods there to swallow up, fall back, I bind; as
far as anything you inhabit." On the front of the monument
may be the name of Perugia (Perusia) which begins with a
phrase: LERI TEVeNS (TE8eNS) TEIS, the
lords divine (L. dius-a-um; adj. divinus) of the gods RASNE SIPA AMA
HENNA PER the Etruscans (Rasne) she encloses (L. saepio,
saepire, saeps, saeptum) she loves Henna (L. Henna [Enna],
f. city of Sicily with a temple of Ceres); through, by (L.
per) XII FEL RINA RVRAS
ARAS, twelve of the great
(Fel) queen (L. regina-ae, f.; It. f. regina; Fr. reine,
f.) (PE)RASCEM VLiM, at
Perusia (Perugia, Perusia, Tuscan town; "em" suffix,
accusative) at times, for a long time now, often (L.
olim). The cippus may be the most
important Etruscan text found to date. (Updated 12.25.06).
Partial translation
of the Capua Tile, Script CP [~126 words that can be read –
script largely unreadable] This
script is so badly damaged only a portion of it can be
made out at the moment. I need a better copy of the
tile! It contains the name of the goddess Aph, a partial
genealogy of the Etruscan gods which appear to have been
born out of Aph, including the god Tini and an
interesting reference to HIPA RIV, the "river horse"
which may relate to the Egyptian goddess of fertility
which had the body of a hippopotamus with human breasts
and features of other animals. Places and boundaries,
providing somewhat of a geography lesson from Etruscan
times, are mentioned, including rivers relating to the
people of Pisa and the Oscans. This is so far the most
interesting of the Etruscan scripts. (10.06.01).
Translation
of Miscellaneous Short Inscriptions.c,html
Scripts GA, MR, MM, OU, VG, VA, CH, MG, MH, PF, LM, DP,
DQ, DR, DS, PF Script GA is from the necropolis of
Gouraya near Algiers, Algeria. Script MR is a mirror
containing what appears to be the Nereid Thetis, the goddess
of wisdom, Minerva, the goddess of discord, Eris, and
Heracles. |
 |
 |
|
Script
MG,"Judgment of Paris"
|
Script VG,
amphora. Museum Villa Giula
|
Script PF, stele
from Fiesole of a Parthian
|